Determination of the effector T cell response

T_h1/T_h2 Model for helper T cells. An antigen is ingested and processed by an APC. It presents fragments from it to T cells. The upper, T_h0, is a T helper cell. The fragment is presented to it by MHC2.^[1] IFN-γ, interferon γ; TGF-β, transforming growth factor β; mø, macrophage; IL-2, interleukin 2; IL-4, interleukin 4

	Type 1/ Th1	Type 2/ Th2
Main partner cell type	Macrophage	B-cell
Cytokines produced	interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-beta. (Interleukin-2 was classically associated with Th1 cells, but this association may be misleading; IL-2 is produced by all helper T cells early in their activation.)	interleukin-4, interleukin-5, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, interleukin-13
Immune stimulation promoted	Cellular immune system. Maximizes the killing efficacy of the macrophages and the proliferation of cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. Also produces opsonizing antibodies	Humoral immune system. Stimulates B-cells into proliferation, to induce B-cell antibody class switching, and to increase neutralizing antibody production.
Other functions	The Type 1 cytokine IFN-γ increases the production of interleukin-12 by dendritic cells and macrophages, and via positive feedback, IL-12 stimulates the production of IFN-γ in helper T cells, thereby promoting the Th1 profile. IFN-gamma also inhibits the production of cytokines such as interleukin-4, an important cytokine associated with the Type 2 response, and thus it also acts to preserve its own response.	The Type 2 response promotes its own profile using two different cytokines. Interleukin-4 acts on helper T cells to promote the production of Th2 cytokines (including itself; it is auto-regulatory), while interleukin-10 (IL-10) inhibits a variety of cytokines including interleukin-2 and IFN-γ in helper T cells and IL-12 in dendritic cells and macrophages. The combined action of these two cytokines suggests that once the T cell has decided to produce these cytokines, that decision is preserved (and also encourages other T cells to do the same).

CD4

CD4 (cluster of differentiation 4) is a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of T helper cells, regulatory T cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells.
Note:Regulatory T cells (T_reg, sometimes known as suppressor T cells)
Function
CD4 is a co-receptor that assists the T cell receptor (TCR) to activate its T cell following an interaction with an antigen-presenting cell. Using its portion that resides inside the T cell, CD4 amplifies the signal generated by the TCR by recruiting an enzyme, known as the tyrosine kinase lck, which is essential for activating many molecules involved in the signaling cascade of an activated T cell. CD4 also interacts directly with MHC class II molecules on the surface of the antigen-presenting cell using its extracellular domain

Medical Robotics Bioports to the Human Body

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7RKnr6XXPps&feature=channel

IMRI & Positron Emission Tomography: A New Tool for Biomedical Imaging?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdBvPkJv1YM&feature=related

Phosphodiesterase

PDE substrate specificities by enzyme family. Both means it hydrolyzes both cAMP and cGMP.

Classification and nomenclature

The PDE superfamily of enzymes is classified into 11 families, namely PDE1-PDE11, in mammals. The classification is based on:

• amino acid sequences
• substrate specificities
• regulatory properties
• pharmacological properties
• tissue distribution.

Clinical significance
phosphodiesterase enzymes are often targets for pharmacological inhibition due to their unique tissue distribution, structural properties, and functional properties. ^[8]
Inhibitors of PDE can prolong or enhance the effects of physiological processes mediated by cAMP or cGMP by inhibition of their degradation by PDE

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphodiesterase#Clinical_significance

PCR

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a scientific technique in molecular biology to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence
Developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis,^[1] PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical and biological research labs for a variety of applications.^[2][3] These include DNA cloning for sequencing, DNA-based phylogeny, or functional analysis of genes; the diagnosis of hereditary diseases; the identification of genetic fingerprints (used in forensic sciences and paternity testing); and the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases. In 1993, Mullis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on PCR.^[

Prostagladin

what is the relationship between NSAIDs and Prostagladin (eicosanoids) ?

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosanoid
NSAID is a drug that block COX1 enzyme that convert Arachidonic Acid to Prostaglandin.
Prostaglandin Function:
- PGD2:Promotion of sleep
-PGE2: +Smooth muscle contraction;
             +inducing pain, heat, fever;
             +bronchoconstriction
-PGF2α:Uterine contraction
-PGI2: +Inhibition of platelet aggregation;
           + vasodilation; embryo implantation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosanoid#Function_and_pharmacology